Yes! The latest version of homebrew stores the artifacts used to install the packages in /Library/Caches/Homebrew
:
> ls /Library/Caches/Homebrew
Casks gnutls-3.3.15.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz libusb-1.0.19.yosemite.bottle.1.tar.gz ppl011-0.11_1.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz
Formula gpg-agent-2.0.27.yosemite.bottle.2.tar.gz libusb-compat-0.1.5.yosemite.bottle.1.tar.gz protoc-square-2.6.1.square.1.2.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz
brew-cask--git isl-0.14.1.yosemite.bottle.3.tar.gz maven-3.3.3.tar.gz pth-2.0.7.yosemite.bottle.1.tar.gz
cloog-0.18.3.tar.gz isl011-0.11.1.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz mpfr-3.1.2-p11.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz qemu-2.3.0.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz
cloog018-0.18.0.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz libassuan-2.2.1.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz nasm-2.11.08.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz sqlite-3.8.10.2.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz
colordiff-1.0.13.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz libgcrypt-1.6.3.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz nettle-2.7.1.yosemite.bottle.1.tar.gz um-1.8.6.tar.gz
dirmngr-1.1.1_1.yosemite.bottle.2.tar.gz libgpg-error-1.19.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz p2-0.0.5.1.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz vim-7.4.712.tar.gz
gcc-5.1.0.yosemite.bottle.2.tar.gz libksba-1.3.3.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz packer-0.7.5.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz virtualbox-4.3.26-98988.dmg.incomplete
glib-2.44.1.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz libmpc-1.0.3.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz pcre-8.37.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz virtualbox-4.3.28-100309.dmg
gmp-6.0.0a.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz libpng-1.6.17.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz pinentry-0.9.4.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz
gnupg2-2.0.28.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz libtasn1-4.5.yosemite.bottle.tar.gz pixman-0.32.6.yosemite.bottle.1.tar.gz
If you interrupted an installation homebrew will resume downloading the artifacts if they don't match the SHA values specified in the recipe for the package. If they SHAs match, it won't redownload them. You won't ever end up with two copies of the same artifact on disk. If it needs to re-download, it'll delete the existing artifact first.